Table 3 MSC-EV-mediated therapeutic effects by undefined responsible molecules

Mouse/BM

Kidney/rat model of 5/6 subtotal nephrectomy (in vivo)

Fibrosis prevention, interstitial lymphocyte infiltrates, and absent tubular atrophy

[47]

Mouse/BM

Human/UC

Lung/mouse hypoxic pulmonary hypertension model (in vivo)

Suppression of the hypoxic pulmonary influx of macrophages and the induction of anti-inflammatory and pro-proliferative mediators

[38]

Human/UC

Hind limb/rat ischemia model (in vivo)

Promotion of proliferation and tubular structure formation of endothelial cells in vitro and exemplified in vivo with the evidence of improvement in the blood flow recovery

[48]

Rat/BM

Brain/rat model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (in vivo)

Enhancement of neurite remodeling, neurogenesis and angiogenesis, which were evidenced by increases in axonal density and synaptophysin-positive areas, and doublecortin-positive neuroblast and endothelial cell numbers

[39]

Human/UC

Kidney/rat cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury model (in vivo) and in vitro culture of rat tubular epithelial cells exposed to cisplatin

Decrease in cisplatin-mediated renal oxidative stress and apoptosis in vivo and increase in renal epithelial cell proliferation in vitro

[43]

Human/ESCs

Immune system/mouse model of allogeneic skin graft (in vivo)

Induction of an attenuated proinflammatory cytokine response and enhanced anti-inflammatory cytokine production by monocytes, leading to polarized activation of CD4⁺ T cells to CD4⁺CD25⁺FoxP3⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs)

[46]

Human/ESCs

Liver/CCl₄-induced mouse liver injury model (in vivo)

Upregulation of the priming-phase genes during liver regeneration, which subsequently led to increased expression of proliferation-related proteins, PCNA and cyclin D₁

[40]

Horse/AT

Vascular system/ex vivo rat aortic ring and in vitro scratch assays

Mechanisms have not been identified

[49]

Human/BM

Lung/SiO₂-induced mouse idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis model (in vivo)

Downregulation of inflammatory response and suppression of fibrosis as evidenced by decreased collagen deposition

[45]

Human/AT

Immune system/in vitro culture of stimulated T cells

Inhibitory effect on the differentiation and activation of T cells and reduced T cell proliferation and IFNγ release in in vitro stimulated cells

[44]

Rat/BM

Brain/rat cortical impact rat model of traumatic brain injury (in vivo)

Increased endothelial cells in the lesion boundary zone and dentate gyrus, increased numbers of newly formed immature and mature neurons in the dentate gyrus and reduced neuroinflammation

[41]

Mouse/AT

Brain/in vitro culture of neuronal cells exposed to oxidative stress and ex vivo cerebellar slice cultures treated with lysophosphatidylcholine

Protection of neurons from apoptotic cell death, promotion of remyelination and activation of nestin-positive oligodendroglial precursors

[42]