Table 3 Summary of cell-free approaches used in cardiac repair

Exosomes

hESC-derived MSCs

Mouse

Reduced infarct size

Myocardial infarction/ reperfusion injury

[166,167,168]

hESCSC-derived cardiovascular progenitor

Mouse

Reduced left ventricular end-systolic and end-diastolic volumes

Chronic heart failure

[169]

hiPSC-derived cardiovascular progenitor

Improved cardiac function through decreased left ventricular volumes and increased LVEF

Myocardial infarction

[170]

MSCs

Rat

Reduced apoptosis and the myocardial infarct size

Reperfusion injury

[171]

Modified mRNA

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A

Mouse

Induced vascular regeneration

Myocardial infarction

[172]

Pig

Improved LVEF, increased angiogenesis, and reduced fibrosis

[173]

Mouse

Promotes Isl1+ to endothelial cell fate

[174]

Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)

Mouse

Promote cardiomyocyte survival and abrogate cell apoptosis post-MI

[175]

Growth factors

VEGF

Pig

Increased myocardial blood flow and improved regional ventricular function

Chronic myocardial ischemia

[176]

Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs)

Mouse

Induced cardiomyocyte proliferation and division

Ischemic heart disease

[177]

Neuregulin 1 (NRG-1)

Mouse

Induced cardiomyocyte proliferation and promotes myocardial regeneration

Myocardial infarction

[178]

Periostin

Rat

Reduced fibrosis and infarct size, and increase angiogenesis

Myocardial infarction

[179]

Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)

Rat

Reduced apoptosis of cardiomyocytes and lesion size

Reperfusion injury

[180]

Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)

Rat

Decreased infarct size, decreased cardiomyocyte death, and preserved systolic function

Ischemia/reperfusiomy/myocardial infarction

[181]

Interleukin (e.g., IL-33, IL-11)

Rat

Reduced cardiomyocyte apoptosis, decreased infarct size and fibrosis, and improved ventricular function

Ischemia/reperfusion

[182]

Mouse

Reduced fibrosis and increase angiogenesis

Myocardial infarction

[183]