Table 1 Therapeutic potential of MSC exosomes in the context of regenerative medicine

MI

Cardiac MSC

Precipitation at 4 °C with 5× polyethylene glycol 4000

Transferring miRs

Promoting cardiac angiogenesis and activating cardiomyocyte proliferation (animal study)

[88]

MI

BM-MSC

ExoQuick Exosome Precipitation Solution

Delivering miR-221 and miR-19a

Higher protective effects in cardiomyocytes promoted the growth of cardiomyocytes and prevented cell apoptosis (animal study)

[89, 90]

MI

BM-MSC

Ultracentrifugation (110,000×g)

Delivering miR-210 that decreases the expression of ephrin-A3

Promoted angiogenesis and cardiac function (animal study)

[91]

Myocardial IRI

HuES9.E1-derived MSC

Chromatography columns

Stimulating anti-apoptotic pathways and also inhibiting pro-apoptotic pathways

Enhanced bioenergetics and pro-survival signaling of cardiac cells (animal study)

[92]

MI

BM-MSC

ExoQuick-TC

n.a

Inducing neovascularization and suppressing inflammatory response (animal study)

[93]

MI

BM-MSC

Ultracentrifugation (200,000×g)

Delivering MiR-125b-5p

Inhibited apoptosis of cardiomyocyte through inhibition of pro-apoptotic genes p53 and BCL2-antagonist/killer 1 (BAK1) (animal study)

[94]

Autoimmune hepatitis

BM-MSC

Ultracentrifugation (100,000×g)

Delivering exosomal miR-223

Downregulating various inflammatory genes and proteins and inhibition of hepatocyte death (animal study)

[95]

Hepatic oxidant injury

UC-MSC

Ultracentrifugation (100,000×g)

Delivering glutathione peroxidase 1 (GPX1)

Suppressed oxidative stress and apoptosis on CCl4-and H₂O₂-induced hepatic damage (animal study)

[96]

LF

HuES9.E1-derived MSC

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

Increasing the expression of cyclin D1 and PCNA as proliferative proteins and enhancing expression of Bcl-xL as an anti-apoptotic factor

Promoting hepatocyte proliferation and inhibiting hepatocyte apoptosis (animal study)

[97]

Liver fibrosis

BM-MSC

Ultracentrifugation (100,000×g)

Lowering the plasma level of alanine aminotransferase and modulating expression level of inflammatory cytokines and regulatory T cells

Inducing hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects (animal study)

[98]

LF

ESC-MSC

Ultracentrifugation (100,000×g)

n.a

Enhanced anti-apoptosis, anti-fibrosis, and regenerative capacity (animal study)

[99]

LF

BM-MSC

Ultracentrifugation (100,000×g)

Delivering Y-RNA-1

Modulated inflammatory response and by inducing multiple anti-apoptotic genes (animal study)

[100]

AD

WJ-MSC

Ultracentrifugation (100,000×g)

Delivering catalase

Decreasing neuronal oxidative stress and synapse damage (animal study)

[101]

Brain stroke

BM-MSC

Ultracentrifugation (100,000×g)

Transferring miR-133b to neighboring astrocytes and neuron cells

Increased functional regeneration (animal study)

[102]

SCI

BM-MSC

n.a

Enhanced neuro-vascularization and weaken neuronal apoptosis, as well as prevent inflammation and inhibit the neurotoxic of A1 astrocytes

Boosted SCI functional recovery (animal study)

[103]

SNI

UC-MSCs

Ultracentrifugation

Promoted the generation of axons and Schwann cells, minimized muscular atrophy, and induced anti-inflammatory reactions

Improved functional recovery and peripheral nerve regeneration (animal study)

[104]

SNI

Gingiva MSC

ExoQuick Exosome Precipitation Solution (SBI Systems Biosciences)

Expression of phenotype-related genes, c-Jun, Notch1, GFAP, Sox2 and the stimulation of JNK pathways

Regeneration of peripheral nerve (animal study)

[105]

MS

AT-MSC

Ultracentrifugation (100,000×g)

Reducing the number of Iba-1-positive microglial cells and also the plasma levels of inflammatory cytokines

Modulated microglial activity and improved immunomodulatory activities (animal study)

[88]

AKI

UC-MSCs

Ultracentrifugation (100,000×g)

Transferring hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) mRNA

Improved dedifferentiation and proliferation of damaged cells (animal study)

[89]

Kidney IRI

n.a

n.a

Delivering miR-22 for mTOR/HIF feedback interaction pathway and suppressing (PDCD4)/NFKB pathways

Stimulating kidney protection by inducing anti-inflammatory responses and reducing epithelial cell damage (animal study)

[106]

Kidney IRI

WJ-MSC

Ultracentrifugation (100,000×g)

Reduced kidney cell apoptosis and boosted anti-inflammatory responses

Downregulated CX3CL1 expression and improved kidney function (animal study)

[107]

AKI

UC-MSCs

Ultracentrifugation (100,000×g)

Activation of the ERK 1/2 pathway and inhibition of the p38MAPK pathway

Suppressing oxidative stress, inducing cell growth, and reducing kidney cell apoptosis (animal study)

[108]

CKD

Urinary MSC

Ultracentrifugation (100,000×g)

Delivering effective growth factors

Inhibited cell apoptosis and increased vascular regeneration (animal study)

[109]

Kidney artery stenosis

AT-MSC

n.a

Delivering anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL) 10

Attenuated kidney inflammation and fibrosis, increased kidney blood supply, and suppressed glomerular filtration (animal study)

[110]

Kidney fibrosis

BM-MSC

ExoQuick Exosome Precipitation Solution

Delivering exogenous microRNA let7c

Suppression of kidney inflammation (animal study)

[111]

ALI

UCB-MSC

Ultracentrifugation (100,000×g)

Delivering VEGF

Restored impaired alveoli function, angiogenic effects, and anti-inflammatory responses and minimized cell apoptosis (animal study)

[112]

ALI

AT-MSC

Ultracentrifugation

Delivering miRNA

Attenuating ALI damage and macrophages polarization (animal study)

[113]

Lung IRI

BM-MSCs

n.a

Transferring miR-21-5p

Inhibited lung edema and improved the function of wound healing (animal study)

[114]

ALI

BM-MSC

Ultracentrifugation

Transferring KGF

Promoted immunomodulatory effects and increased intracellular ATP levels of alveolar epithelial type 2 cell (animal study)

[115]

ALI

BM-MSC

Ultracentrifugation (100,000×g)

Transferring mitochondrial

Inhibited the production of inflammatory cytokines and enhanced phenotype 2 of alveolar macrophages (animal study)

[116]

PAH

BM-MSC

Ultracentrifugation (100,000×g)

Alleviated pressure, inhibited right ventricle hypertrophy, and restored pulmonary function

Improved pulmonary artery hypertension (animal study)

[117]