Fig. 3

Prospective nano-immunotherapy approaches to target CSCs. a The nucleic acids-based vaccine (mRNA or DNA) and CSCs-specific neoantigens are formulated into the nanoparticle displaying a DCs-targeting ligand to engage DCs followed by activation of CD4/8T cells in vivo. b Plasmid-encoding CAR against various CSC proteins can be loaded in CD3 targeted polymeric nanoparticles that genetically reprogramme T cells ex vivo or in vivo and thus T cells can be armed specificity to CSCs antigen of choice. c Owing to improving the pharmacokinetics of the immunomodulators and lowering their systemic exposure, the multiples of anti-PD1 and anti-CTLA4 antibodies can be bioconjugated to the surface of PEGylated liposomes to target T cells in vivo and promote their antitumor immune responses. d naAPC can generate coupling of co-stimulatory anti-CD28 antibody and MHC-1-Ig dimer on the surface of magnetic nanoparticles which induce TCR clustering and expand and activate the tumor-infiltrated T cells efficiently in vivo. Ag, antigen; ILipo, immunoliposomes; PEG, polyethylene glycol; naAPC, nano artificial antigen-presenting cell