Table 1 Overview of clinical studies in which tissue engineered grafts were applied for bone regeneration

Segmental defects of long bones (3 patients)

Cultured bone marrow osteoprogenitors; seeding on hydroxyapatite scaffolds

Callus formation and integration 2 months after surgery

Large calvarial defect (1 patient)

Adipose stem cells in fibrin glue, with autologous cancellous bone

New bone formation and calvarial continuity 3 months after surgery

Maxillary sinus augmentation (2 patients)

Cultured mandibular periosteal cells; seeding and culture on polymer fleece under osteogenic conditions

Tight interface of bone and dental implant, new mineralized trabecular bone and remnants of biomaterial 4 months after surgery

Maxillary sinus augmentation (27 patients)

Cultured mandibular periosteal cells; seeding and culture on polymer fleece in osteogenic conditions

18 patients: presence of mineralized trabecular bone, remnants of biomaterial and no resorption 3 months after surgery

8 patients: absence of bone formation, resorption, connective tissue 3 months after surgery

1 patient: infection after surgery, removal of the graft

Posterior mandible augmentation (1 patient)

Mandibular periosteal cells on polymer fleece

Enhanced transverse ridge dimensions, dense lamellar bone 6 months after surgery

Maxillary sinus augmentation (13 patients)

Group 1: cultured mandibular periosteal cells; seeding and culture on collagen scaffold in osteogenic conditions (8 patients)

Group 1: vital woven and partially mature lamellar bone 6 months after surgery, little remaining biomaterial

Group 2a: cultured maxillary osteoblasts; seeding and culture on natural bone mineral scaffold (2 patients)

Group 2a: new bone and remnants of biomaterial at former sinus floor 8 months after surgery, poorly vascularized connective tissue, remnants of biomaterial

Group 2b: natural bone mineral scaffold alone (3 patients)

Group 2b: new bone and remnants of biomaterial 8 months after surgery; significantly lower bone density than in groups 1 and 2a

Maxillary sinus augmentation (20 patients)

Group 1: autologous iliac crest bone (10 patients)

Group 1: 29% bone resorption rate 3 months after surgery

Group 2: cultured mandibular periosteal cells; seeding and culture on polymer fleece in osteogenic conditions (10 patients)

Group 2: 90% graft resorption rate 3 months after surgery, graft density corresponding to connective tissue in all but one augmentation

Maxillary sinus augmentation (3 patients)

Cultured mandibular periosteal cells; seeding and culture on polymer fleece in osteogenic conditions; implanted with xenograft bone

New fibrous bone and remnants of xenograft bone 4 months after surgery; some maturation into lamellar bone; presence of osteoclasts 6 months after surgery; increased bone height 18 months after surgery

Maxillary sinus augmentation (7 patients)

Cultured bone marrow stem cells seeding and 1-day culture on calcium phosphate ceramic scaffold

New bone formation and remnants of biomaterial 3 months after surgery; increased bone height 3 and 12 months after surgery

Lumbar segmental fusion (24 patients)

Group 1: autologous iliac crest cancellous bone (11 patients)

Group 2: cultured mandibular periosteal cells; seeding and culture on polymer fleece in osteogenic conditions (13 patients)

Lower donor site morbidity in group 2; higher fusion rate in group 2 compared to group 1 in the period 3 to 9 months after surgery; comparable clinical and radiological results (80% fusion in group 1, 90% fusion in group 2) 12 months after surgery