| Feature | Benefits | Challenges |
---|---|---|---|
Bioprinting | Control over macrostructure and microstructure of tissue produced | Replicate anatomical form Reduce surgical technique learning curve | Biomechanical properties of bioinks Effect of printing on cells Printing resolution |
 | Patient-specific macrostructure from image acquisition (CT/MRI) | Reduce variability in surgical outcomes | Macrostructure may alter during bioreactor maturation |
 | Manufacture ex vivo | Avoid donor site morbidity Reduce operating time | Potential for contamination Regulatory constraints |
Regenerative medicine | Tissue-specific stem cells to improve quality and functionality of engineered tissue | True ‘like for like’ replacement Restoring native anisotropy allows improved matching of mechanical properties | Genetic stability and differentiation capacity of cells after prolonged expansion in culture |
 | Tissue maturation utilizing growth factors | Reduce degradation and constriction | Optimal growth factor combinations and temporal effects |