Fig. 1

Combined factors that modulate cell fate and functions. a Soluble growth factors may act as paracrine or autocrine mechanisms by interacting with cell receptors directly or after binding to matrix; extracellular matrix and direct cell-to-cell contact may in turn direct cell fate in a defined microenvironment. The interaction between stem and stromal cells is reciprocal. In addition, oxygen tension and metabolic products may modulate cell phenotype. Extracellular vesicles are part of this complex regulatory network of factors involved in the interaction between cells. b Schematic representation of different modes of action of extracellular vesicles. lncRNA long noncoding RNA, miRNA microRNA