Table 1 Summary of encapsulation technologies with diverse materials and MSC types for different target tissues

Micromolding

Benefits:

 • Controlled shape

 • Controlled size

Limitations:

 • Batch process

Fibrin

Human bone marrow-derived stem cell

Blood vessel

[36]

Alginate

Bone marrow-derived stem cell

Non-specific

[37]

Polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based hydrogel

Human mesenchymal stem cells

Non-specific

[38]

Electrostatic droplet extrusion

Benefits:

 • Controlled droplet size

 • Uniform droplet size

Limitations:

 • Materials constraints

Alginate

Rat adipose-derived stem cell

Non-specific

[50]

Alginate

Human adipose-derived stem cell

Non-specific

[51]

Alginate-lyase

Rat adipose-derived stem cell

Bone

[85]

Microfluidics

Droplet

Benefits:

 • Controlled monodispersity

 • Controlled dimensions and shape

Limitations:

 • Non-scalable

Gelatin norbornene (GelNB) and PEG

Human bone marrow-derived stem cell

Hyaline cartilage

[60]

Gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA)

Rat bone marrow-derived stem cell

Bone

[61]

Alginate/RGD-alginate

Human bone marrow-derived stem cell

Bone

[87]

RGD-alginate

Human periodontal ligament stem cell/gingival mesenchymal stem cell

Cartilage

[84]

Microfiber

Benefits:

 • Homogeneous

 • Continuous

Limitations:

 • Flow friction

 • Clogging in microchannels

Alginate

Mouse bone marrow-derived stem cell

Blood vessel

[65]

Bioprinting

Inkjet bioprinting

Benefits:

 • Low cost

 • High-throughput

Limitations:

 • Nozzle clogging

 • Non-uniform droplet size

PEG-GelMA

Human bone marrow-derived stem cell

Cartilage/bone

[69]

Type I collagen- and chitosan-agarose blends

Human bone marrow-derived stem cell

Adipose/bone

[70]

Fibrin-collagen

Human amniotic fluid-derived stem cell and bone marrow-derived stem cell

Skin

[90]

Agarose-collagen

Human bone marrow-derived stem cell

Bone

[86]

Extrusion bioprinting

Benefits:

 • High cell density

 • Wide range of viscous materials

Limitations:

 • Slow speed

 • Viscous liquid only

Methacrylamide gelatin

Rat bone marrow-derived stem cell

Bone

[73]

Polylactic acid (PLA)/GelMA

Rat bone marrow-derived stem cell

Bone

[74]

Cellulose and alginate

Human bone marrow-derived stem cell

Cartilage

[83]

Skin-derived ECM

Human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cell

Skin

[89]

Laser-assisted bioprinting

Benefits:

 • High cell viability

 • Various bioink available

Limitations:

 • High cost

Polyester urethane urea (PEUU)

Human bone marrow-derived stem cell

Cardiac

[79]

Plasma-alginate

Porcine bone marrow-derived stem cell

Cartilage/bone

[80]