Table 3 Small molecules and peptides used for beta cell differentiation from MSC. Physiological or biochemical actions and substitutes for the small molecules/peptides used to generate beta cells from different tissue-derived MSC
Small molecule or peptide—name | Structure | Mode of action and effect | Possible substitute | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Nicotinamide |
| PARP inhibition, drives beta cell outgrowth | Not known | [131] |
IDE-1 (inducer of definitive endoderm 1) |
| Favors nodal signaling, induces Sox-17-reporter | IDE-2 | |
l-Taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonic acid) |
| Cryoprotective agent binding with glycine receptors, involved in calcium signaling | Not known | [133] |
Vitamin C |
| Reducing p53 levels and lightening senescence, thereby inducing complete reprogramming | Not known | [134] |
ILV (indolactam V) |
| Protein kinase C activation, can induce pancreatic progenitor differentiation | PbdU | |
RA (retinoic acid) |
| Receptor for retinoic acid receptors; promotes differentiation into neurons, glia cells, adipocytes | Not known | |
SB203580 |
| MAP kinase (MAPKAP kinase-2 and P38 MAPK) inhibitor, heat shock protein inhibition | PD98059, U0216 | [138] |
Trichostatin |
| Class 1 and II histone deacetylase inhibitor, removes acetyl groups from the histone tails. | Not known | [139] |
Sodium butyrate |
| Class I inhibitor of histone deacetylases | Not known | [140] |
Lithium chloride |
| Promotes Wnt signaling, blocks glycogen synthase kinase 3-β pathway | SB216763, CHIR99021 | [141] |
PD0325901 |
| MEK/ERK kinase pathway inhibitor | Not known | [142] |
LDN 193189 |
| Inhibitor of ALK 1,2,3,6 pathways | Not known | [143] |
DAPT |
| Gamma secretase inhibition | Compound -E | [121] |
Pentagastrin |
| CCKB agonist, expands beta cell mass. | Not known | [144] |
GLP-1 |
| Augments maturation, belongs to the group of hormones that reduce blood glucose by binding with GLP receptors | Exendin, Exenatide, semaglutide | |
Exendin-4 |
| GLP receptors agonist | GLP-1 | [147] |
