Table 1 Comparison between the pulsed atmospheric arc (PAA) technology and piezoelectric direct discharge (PDD) technology used to generate atmospheric plasma

Based on the ignition of an electric arc between two electrodes by means of pulsed high voltage; gas flow is ionized as it passes close to the arc, which creates a plasma jet of highly reactive gaseous species

Based on the direct electrical discharge at an open piezoelectric transformer; this dissociates and ionizes the surrounding process gas, which is typically ambient air

High process speed; adjustable plasma temperature; long-term stability

Very compact; high efficiency; ambient temperature

Requires automation; need to avoid undesired thermal over-treatment; operate at high power consumption,

Relatively low power output; potential electrical hazard to user due to proximity

Indirect applications: cell or tissue-resident niche; surgical implant

Direct applications: cells, tissues, and animal or human organs