Fig. 2
From: Impact of 3D cell culture on bone regeneration potential of mesenchymal stromal cells
Contribution of MSCs to regeneration in bone fractures. In the acute phase after a bone fracture, resident or transplanted MSCs release a magnitude of paracrine factors which in turn attract immune cells and additional MSCs to the side if the injury. Paracrine actions of MSCs also include modulation of endogenous cell differentiation, proliferation and angiogenesis. In addition, they are able to integrate and undergo osteogenic differentiation thereby replacing lost bone material. Finally, in the late stage of bone regeneration, MSCs contribute to regeneration by releasing soluble and extracellular vesicle embedded immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory factors including proteins and miRNAs