Table 2 The pre-clinical results and clinical outcomes for each autoimmune disease with respect to PMSC types
Type of autoimunne diseases | Type of PMSCs | Pre-clinical results | References |
 SLE | UCMSCs | Inhibiting B cell activity and autophagy activation in T cells; inducing CD4+ T cell apoptosis; upregulating the ratio of Th2/Th1; promoting generation of Treg cells, CD1c+DCs, and CD206+ M2 macrophages | |
 LN | UCMSCs | Downregulating the levels of proteinuria, serum creatinine, anti-dsDNA antibody, IgG, and C3 deposition; inducing macrophages to M2 phenotype | |
PDMSCs | Reducing the severity of proteinuria, production of anti-dsDNA antibodies; inhibiting the expression of inflammatory cytokines NF-κB, TNF-α, etc. | [58] | |
 RA | UCMSCs | Decreasing the ratio of Th17/Treg cells; inhibiting the expression of CDH11; downregulating the levels of TNFα, IL-6, MCP-1, and IL-17, and upregulating the levels of IL-10 and TGF-β | |
UCBMSCs | Downregulating TNF-α, IL-1, and IFN-γ, but upregulating IL-10; reducing the infiltration of immune cells and hypertrophy of the synovial tissue | ||
 EAE | UCMSCs | Ameliorating demyelination, axonal damage, and promoting remyelination in the spinal cord; modulating the ratio of Th1/Th2 cells and Th17/Treg cells in the spleen; increasing IL-4 and IL-10 but decreasing IL-1 and IL-6 in the spinal cord | |
PDMSCs | Decreasing infiltrating inflammatory cells, preserving axons, and ameliorating demyelination; decreasing the levels of COX-2, NF-kB, TNF-α, IFN-γ, and IL-2, and increasing production of IL-4 and TGF-β | ||
 Psoriasis | UCMSCs | Ameliorate the skin inflammation; attenuating plasmacytoid DCs to produce type I IFN | [84] |
UCBMSCs | Downregulating IL-6, IL-17, TNF-α, CCL17, CCL20, and CCL27 | [85] | |
AMSCs | Decreasing both IL-17A and IL-22 production by cutaneous γδ-low T cells | [86] | |
 Primary Sjögren’s syndrome | UCMSCs | Suppressing the T cell proliferation and restoring the Treg/Th17 ratio of PBMCs; downregulating the production of IFN-γ, IL-6, and TNFα but upregulating production of IL-10; suppressing the differentiation and proliferation of Tfh cells; inducing macrophages into an M2 phenotype | |
 T1D | AFSCs | Preserving and promoting endogenous β cell functionality and proliferation | [97] |
Type of autoimunne diseases | Type of PMSCs | Clinical outcomes | References |
 SLE | UCMSCs | Exhibiting a good safety profile in SLE patients; upregulating the ratio of Treg/Th17; 32.5% patients achieved major clinical response and 27.5% patients achieved partial clinical response during 12 months of follow-up. 12.5% and 16.7% patients experienced disease relapse at 9 months and 12 months | |
 LN | UCMSCs | Exhibiting a good safety profile in LN patients; ameliorating renal activity, renal function, glomerular filtration rate, and total disease activity | |
 RA | UCMSCs | Exhibiting a good safety profile in RA patients; decreasing health index and joint function index of 1 year and 3 years after treatment; decreasing the serum levels of TNF-α and IL-6; increasing the percentage of Treg cells in peripheral blood | |
UCBMSCs | Exhibiting a good safety profile in RA patients; reducing levels of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α; increasing the percentage of Treg cells in peripheral blood; reducing the mean 28-joint disease activity score at week 4 | [108] | |
 MS | PDMSCs | Exhibiting a good safety profile in MS patients; decreasing Expanded Disability Status Scale scores | [27] |
 Psoriasis | UCMSCs | Reducing the severity and development of psoriasis at least 4 years | [110] |
 T1D | UCMSCs | Increasing levels of C peptide and decreasing HbA1c, fasting glycemia, and daily insulin requirements |