Table 1 MSC-EVs as potential therapy for MS, and related neurodegenerative diseases

MS

EAE Rat

Intravenous

Regulated polarization of microglia M1-M2

Attenuated demyelination and decreased inflammation

[141]

EAE Mice

Intravenous

Reduced T-cell proliferation and increased regulatory T-cell activity through anti-inflammatory cytokines

Improved functional outcomes and clinical score, reduced demyelination

[138]

EAE Mice

Intravenous

Induced anti-inflammatory TH-2 cytokines and TGF-β

Modulated immune response and induced peripheral tolerance

[132]

TMEV-IDD Mice

Intravenous

Decreased Th-1/Th-17 cytokines

Improved motor deficits

[131]

Alzheimer

APP/PS1 Mice

Intravenous

Inhibited astrocyte activation, decreased pro-inflammatory and increased anti-inflammatory cytokines

Alleviated plaque deposition and Aβ accumulation, improving cognitive function

[148]

3xTg Mice

Intranasal

Regulated polarization of microglia M1-M2

Neuroprotective effects, increased dendritic spine density

[143]

Status Epilepticus

Pilocarpine Mice

Intranasal

Decreased glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons, regulation of pro/anti-inflammatory cytokines

Neuroprotective effects, preserved cognitive and memory function

[128]

Stroke

MCAO Rats

Intravenous

miR-133b regulated CTGF in astrocytes, increasing axonal plasticity

Induced functional recovery

[149]

Glaucoma

ONC Mice

Intravitreal

Improved retinal ganglion cell survival, downregulated cis-p tau

Improved cognitive visual behavior

[150]

ONC Rats

Intravitreal

Modulated inflammatory response through miR-based mechanisms

Neuroprotection of retinal ganglion cells

[130]