Table 1 Technologies for Engineered MSCs and Exos

Genetic engineering

Retrovirus

DNA integration into the host cell genome

Insertional mutation

[54]

Long-term stable expression of target gene

Oncogene activation

Lentivirus

DNA integration into the host cell genome

Oncogene activation

[54,55,56]

Long-term stable expression of target gene

Infects dividing and quiescent cells

No oncogene inserted

Baculovirus

Low toxicity

Oncogene activation

[60,61,62]

High transfection efficiency

Does not affect cell function

Adenovirus

Non-pathogenic High load capacity

Oncogene activation

[52, 64]

Transient gene expression

Adeno-associated virus

Low immunogenicity

Low transfection efficiency

[64, 66,67,68]

high security

Oncogene activation

Long-term expression of target gene

Electroporation

High transfection efficiency

May affect cell function

[78, 80, 81]

Simple operation

Liposomes and Polymers

Easy to synthesize and modify

Low transfection efficiency

[84,85,86, 88, 89]

Cytotoxicity

Inorganic Nanoparticles

Easy to synthesize and modify

Cytotoxicity

[75, 91]

Good biocompatibility

Surface modification

Enzyme modification

Enhances cell adhesion and engraftment

Nonspecific

[92,93,94]

Minimal impact on cell viability and function

Potentially affects other cell surface molecules

chemical modification

Strong targeting

[92, 95, 96]

Does not affect other cell surface molecules

Non-covalent modification

Strong targeting

[97]

Does not affect other cell surface molecules

Tissue engineering

Nanotopological scaffold

Good biocompatibility Strong ductility Good thermal stability

Corrosion occurs when implanted in the body for too long

[101, 102]

Hydrogel scaffold

Good biocompatibility

[107,108,109]

Strong Hydrophilicity

Good biodegradability Strong encapsulation ability