Table 2 Natural substrates used for muscle tissue regeneration

Rat and mouse models of hind limb ischemia

Decellularized skeletal muscle ECM

Restoration of blood perfusion, Induction of angiogenesis, and ECM concentration affect the viscosity, physical strength, and hydrogel degradation rates

[313]

Mouse model of acute right tibialis anterior muscle injury

Decellularized ECM hydrogel

Increase in pax 7, Upregulation of nnt3, Tcap, Jsrp1, Mylk2 in tissue-specific ECM hydrogel

[314]

In vitro culture of Lewis rats satellite cell

ECM component and plant-derived component hydrogel

Fibrin hydrogel determined as the most qualified scaffold for satellite cell culture and skeletal muscle regeneration

[315]

In vitro & in vivo: diaphragm defect of BALB/c Rag2^−/− mice

Decellularized ECM of diaphragm tissue of piglet

This hydrogel was determined as a favorable acellular scaffold for diaphragm injuries

[316]

In vitro

Transglutaminase cross-linked gelatin hydrogels

This hydrogel increases the myotube length on isometric gelatin hydrogel with low stiffness. Long-term cell culture induced contractile phenotype and upregulates MHC

[317]

In vitro & in vivo: hind limb ischemia of mouse model

RGD-modified D-form peptide hydrogel (Nap ^DF^DFKGRGD) with mesenchymal stem cells

Hydrogel demonstrated favorable biocompatibility and stability after implantation on hind limb ischemia of mice with enhanced cell survival and pro-angiogenesis properties

[318]

In vitro

Decellularized ECM of bovine pericardium hydrogel

Hydrogel-supported C2C12 viability, upregulation of MHC, Myogenin, and α-SMA

[319]