Table 4 Synthetic hydrogels for muscle tissue regeneration
Study | Hydrogel type | Outcomes | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|
In vitro & in vivo: Tibialis anterior muscle defect of rat | PVA-silicate ion-releasing hydrogel | Hydrogel degradation and ion-releasing rate are similar to regenerating muscle. Hydrogel-supported angiogenesis and myogenesis while diminishing oxidative stress effects | [65] |
In vitro & in vivo: Tibialis anterior muscles of mice | Maleimide groups functionalized four-arm PEG hydrogel | Hydrogel increased the population of Pax 7 cells and the migration of injected mouse stem cells | [24] |
In vitro & in vivo: Female C57BL/6 mice Hhind limb Iischemia | Poly(NIPAAm-co-NAS-co-HEMA-HB4-co-PAA-co-MAPEG) containing CTT | Synthetic hydrogel acts as an MMP‒2 regulator to inhibit ECM degradation while boosting angiogenesis in ischemic skeletal muscle | [321] |
In vitro | Reduced & unreduced graphene oxide/polyacrylamide (GO/PAAm) hydrogel | Reduced GO/PAAm led to higher upregulation of MHC, MyoD, and myogenin. Electrical stimulation of reduced GO/PAAm hydrogel exerted a stronger impact on MHC, MyoD, and myogenin expression | [322] |
In vitro | Poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate‒acrylic acid (AA) in the diverse component ratio | A 1:4 ratio of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate‒acrylic acid had the highest cell survival and metabolic activity | [323] |
In vitro & in vivo: Ttibialis anterior muscle injury of rat | F-127‒AuNPs and F-127‒Au-AuNPs synthetic hydrogel | Hydrogels had different cytotoxicity rates. The upregulation of MyoD, MyoG, and Tnnt-1 was observed in both groups. Higher myofiber density was observed in the animal model | [324] |
In vitro | Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) with a diverse ratio of components | This hydrogel supports the adhesion, viability, and proliferation of C2C12 myoblasts | [325] |