Fig. 1

Direct and indirect (paracrine mechanisms) interactions of ASCs during immunomodulation. This schematic highlights the direct cell–cell interactions of ASCs, such as their effects on T lymphocytes, macrophages, B lymphocytes, DCs and NK cells, and the factors secreted by these cells. Additionally, the paracrine effects of cytokines, growth factors, anti-inflammatory mediators, active enzymes, and EVs play an important role in regulating the immune environment and immune cell function. Created with BioRender.com