Table 1 Mechanisms of ASC immunomodulatory effects

T cells

T_reg cells

Promote T_reg cells differentiation and proliferation

[11,12,13,14]

T_H1/T_H2

Maintain T_H1/T_H2 balance by regulating their secretory phenotype

[15, 16]

T_H17

Inhibit secretion of T_H17 cytokines and induce IL-10 production

[17,18,19,20]

CTL

Inhibit proliferation and CD8 receptor expression of CTL

[21, 22]

Macrophages

Pro-inflammatory phenotype

Inhibit differentiation and infiltration of pro-inflammatory phenotype

[23, 24]

Anti-inflammatory phenotype

Induce differentiation to anti-inflammatory phenotype

[25,26,27,28]

B cells

Activated B cells

Inhibit differentiation and antibody production of active B cells

[29, 30]

B_reg cells

Support B_reg cells proliferation and differentiation

[31, 32]

NK cells

–

Inhibit NK cells proliferation and their secretory phenotype

[33, 34]

DCs

–

Inhibit DCs maturation and costimulatory signals

[35, 36]

Cytokines

IL-10

Inhibit activation of multiple immune cell types

[37,38,39,40]

TGF-β

Induce T_reg cells and anti-inflammatory macrophages

Inhibit DCs and MLRs

[40, 41]

Growth factors

HGF

Inhibit T_H1 cells and T_H17 cells

Suppress fibrosis

[42,43,44,45]

VEGF

Promote angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis

Inhibit effector immune cells and promote anti-inflammatory cells

[46, 47]

Anti-inflammatory mediators

PGE₂

Induce IL-10 production and T_reg cells

Inhibit NK cells

[48,49,50,51,52,53]

TSG-6

Promote anti-inflammatory macrophages and inhibit pro-inflammatory immune cells

[54,55,56,57,58]

Active enzymes

IDO

Mainly inhibit T cells function

[3, 59,60,61,62]

NOS

Promote pro-inflammatory macrophages

[63, 64]

Arg-1

Promote anti-inflammatory macrophages

[63,64,65]

CM

–

Inhibit immune cells infiltration and their secretory phenotype

[66,67,68,69,70]

EVs

–

Inhibit inflammation

[71, 72]

Exos

Induce T_reg cells and anti-inflammatory macrophages

Decrease inflammatory cytokines

Transfer mitochondrial components

[73,74,75]