Fig. 5

Characterization of Osteo-EVs and MEMs in vitro and in vivo. a Representative SEM images of the MEM loaded with Osteo-EVs, compared with MEM loaded with only SFM. Scale bars, top: 2 µm, bottom: 200 nm with an average size of 61.47 nm (± 17.47 nm). b Representative images from the uptake experiments. Labelled Osteo-EVs were released from the MEM and entered targeted cultured hMSC after 48 h. MEM loaded with SFM served as a control. Blue, DAPI-labelled nuclei; red, Phalloidin; green, DiOC18-dye; scale bar 50 µm. c Representative reconstructed µCT images after 2 (in vivo) and 4 weeks (ex vivo) showing maximum, average, and minimum bone formation in Osteo-EVs and SFM groups. d Quantification of bone coverage (%) and bone volume per tissue volume (BV/TV %) in SFM and Osteo-EVs groups