Table 4 Recent clinical trials on ADSC-based therapies for musculoskeletal regeneration

Bone regeneration

13 patients with craniomaxillofacial hard-tissue defects

Autologous ADSCs were seeded onto either bioactive glass or β-tricalcium phosphate scaffolds and transplanted into the bone defect area

12–52 months

In 10 of 13 cases, the construct was successfully integrated into the surrounding skeleton

Sándor et al. [101]

5 cranial defect patients

Patients received cranioplasties using autologous ADSCs, beta-tricalcium phosphate granules, and supporting meshes

6 years

Long-term clinical results were not satisfactory, partially owing to graft resorption, tumor recurrence, or late infection

Thesleff et al. [103]

Cartilage regeneration

12 patients with knee osteoarthritis

Autologous ADSCs were intra-articularly administered

6 months

ADSC injection provided significant functional improvement and pain relief

Lee et al. [127]

53 patients with symptomatic knee osteoarthritis

Autologous adipose-derived mesenchymal progenitor cells (haMPCs) expanded in vitro were intra-articularly injected

12 months

Significant improvements in joint function, pain, quality of life, and cartilage regeneration with good tolerance

Lu et al. [128]

30 patients with symptomatic knee osteoarthritis

Intra-articular ADSC therapy

12 months

Autologous ADSC therapy is safe and effective and can prevent disease progression

Freitag et al. [129]

18 patients with knee osteoarthritis

Autologous ADSCs were intra-articularly injected

96 weeks

Autologous ADSCs improved the pain, function, and cartilage volume of the knee joint

Song et al. [131]

Tendon regeneration

70 patients with full-thickness rotator cuff tear

35 patients underwent arthroscopic rotator cuff repair with autologous ADSC injections, whereas 35 patients underwent only repair surgery

At least 12 months

ADSC injection during rotator cuff repair significantly decreased the retear rate; furthermore, the function of the repaired tissue was similarly ameliorated in both groups

Kim et al. [158]

18 patients with partial-thickness rotator cuff tear

Intratendinous injection of autologous ADSCs

2 years

Autologous ADSC injection improved shoulder function, relieved pain, and exhibited continued safety and efficacy

Jo et al. [160]

11 patients with partial-thickness rotator cuff tears

Autologous adipose-derived regenerative cells were injected into the shoulder with a single injection

12 months

Autologous adipose-derived regenerative cell injection improved shoulder function without adverse effects

Hurd et al. [161]

44 patients with degenerative posterosuperior rotator cuff tear

22 patients underwent arthroscopic rotator cuff repair augmentation with autologous microfragmented lipoaspirate tissue, whereas 22 patients underwent only repair surgery

24 months

Injection of autologous microfragmented adipose tissue effectively promoted functional rotator cuff repair

Randelli et al. [162]